1. Instructional-design theory is design-oriented
2. Instructional-design theory identifies methods of instruction and the situation in which those methods should and should not be used.
3. In all instructional-design theories, the methods of instruction can be broken down into more detailed component methods, which provide more guidance to educators
4. The methods are probabilistic rather than deterministic
(1) Design theories are intended to provide direct guidance to practitioners about what methods to use to attain different goals. The major concern for people developing and testing descriptive theories is validity, whereas for design theories, it is prefer-ability (i.e., does this method attain your goals for your situation better than any other known method?). This requires different research methodologies (see Chapter 26).
(2) Instructional-design theory requires at least two components: methods for facilitating human learning and development (also called methods of instruction), and indications as to when and when not to use those methods (situations). An essential feature of instructional-design theories is that the methods they offer are situational rather than universal. Two major aspects of any instructional situation: [1] the conditions under which the instruction will take place and [2] the desired outcomes of the instruction. Instructional conditions include: {1} the nature of what is to be learned; {2} the nature of the learner (e.g., Gagne's internal conditions of learning; Gagne's external conditions are actually methods, not conditions); {3} the nature of the learning environment; {4} the nature of instructional development constraints (e.g., time, money). These influence which methods will work best to attain the desired outcomes. Instructional outcomes are different from learning goals. Instructional outcomes do not include the specific learnings desired. Instead, they include levels of effectiveness, efficiency, and appeal you want or deed from the instruction. /1/ Level of effectiveness is a matter of how well the learning goals are attained. The term "criterion" is often used to refer to the level of effectiveness. /2/ Level of efficiency is the level of effectiveness of the instruction divided by the time and/or cost of the instruction. /3/ Level of appeal is the extent to which learners enjoy the instruction.
Methods are made up of different components or features. Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a method made up of smaller methods, such as presenting the problem and the scenario in which it occurs, forming teams, providing support for the teams' efforts, reflecting on the results of the individuals' and teams' efforts, etc. There are also many different ways in which a method can be performed. Finally, more detail can be provided for a method by offering criteria that the method should meet. (Parts, kinds, criteria). Methods are also probabilistic, i.e. they do not guarantee the desired instructional and learning outcomes. They only increase the probability that the desired results will occur.
REFERENCE
Reigeluth, C.M. (1999). What is instructional-design theory and how is it changing? In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models, volume II: A new paradigm of instructional theory (pp. 5-29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
